LANGUAGES IN CONTACT: THE INFLUENCE OF ARABIC ON MODERN ISRAELI HEBREW

Received: 08 December 2016 Final Accepted: 20 January 2017 Published: February 2017 Ongoing contact between the Arabic and Hebrew languages in the Land of Israel has engendered interesting linguistic phenomena in diverse fields. Prominent among these is the penetration of words of Arabic origin into Modern Hebrew slang. Lexical borrowing and penetration from one language to another have existed since ancient times. However, the complex reality in Israel, particularly the phenomenon of bilingualism, has contributed to the enrichment of the Hebrew vocabulary, on all levels, with words drawn from Arabic. The use of slang words of Arabic origin is not the exclusive preserve of any specific population, but can be found among all Hebrew speakers, in both the written and spoken languages, in the media and on social networks. Most slang words of Arabic origin undergo changes in the semantic sphere, and some are employed in a metaphoric sense. These words are declined according to Hebrew rules, but their declension for gender, number, the construct case, and definiteness is usually irregular. The use of slang words meets linguistic functions required by speakers: they contribute to broadening forms of word formation and allowthe derivation of new values, the borrowing of expressions, extensions of meaning, and so forth. Regular morphology, alien sounds, borrowed consonants, an unusual social structure, and arbitrary patterns of definitenessare just some of the more prominent characteristics of slang words of Arabic origin in Modern Hebrew. Slang changes according to fashion, is influenced by its surroundings, and can be found in diverse forms in the language of politicians and statespeople, correspondents and interviewees, and all members of the language community.


ISSN: 2320-5407
Int. J. Adv. Res. 5 (2), 744-752 745 Slang can be seen as a sociolinguistic mechanism that enables speakers to depart from social formality and make utterances that are not otherwise allowed by social norms (Rosenthal, 2008). Sapan defines slang as words and expressions on the margins of the spoken language that are considered improper and unworthy of inclusion in decent or formal speech (Sapan, 1974). Nir notes that slang is not characterized solely by the use of substandard forms; indeed, it is sometimes accompanied by a certain sense of intellectual superiority, not only in lexical terms but particularly in various aspects of grammar (Nir, 2003). Muchnik (2001) defines slang explicitly as substandard language used in unofficial situations by diverse groups of speakers, including young people, students, soldiers, professionals, the elderly, and so forth. However, she adds that recently slang has noticeably expanded into the remaining sectors of the population.
Hebrew slang has enjoyed particular attention in the Israeli consciousness thanks to the vigorous work of Dan Ben-Amotz and Netiva Ben-Yehuda, who undertook a historical enterprise that enjoyed surprising success (Ben-Amotz& Ben-Yehuda, 1972). This process is not unusual in the history of languages and is a natural phenomenon. Today, cub reporters make extensive use of common slang, a practice that has become a norm of journalistic writing and is also accepted by younger editors (Rosenblum, 1992).
Hebrew-speaking Israeli society uses slang expressions extensively; this is illustrated by the growing use of slang by many politicians for social purposes. Over the past decade, slang has penetrated the language of media, advertising, and even literature (Rosenthal, 2008). No external body can determine which slang word will be adopted and which will be rejected. The speakers are exclusively responsible for determining the fate of migrant and new words. Very few slang words become part of the standard language, but many of them show resilience in their slang functionwords drawn from Arabic particularly so.
Initially, slang words were collated in separate dictionaries, such as Ben-Amotz& Ben-Yehuda (1972); Ahiasaf, Radar et al. (1993), Rubik & Rosenthal (2005), and EetaYisraeli (2005). Later, slang words were admitted tothe Even Shoshan dictionary (2004 edition), which included numerous slang terms. Some of these slang dictionaries preserve forgotten words, many of which are no longer in use, while at the same time new words have penetrated the language from every possible direction and field. This highlights one of the features of spoken Hebrew as a language that often reflects the social changes experienced by the Jewish people, particularly in the Land of Israel. Thus Hebrew dictionaries also reflect sociolinguistic changes.

Israeli slang:
One of the key questions raised by study of Israeli slang is why words such as telephone, fax, and television, that entered Hebrew from English, have been accepted in Hebrew as standard words in the language, whereas words that entered from Arabic, such as deḥilak, saḥbi, and maskhara, were repelled to the margins of the language (Muchnik, 2004;Haramati, 2000). Israeli Hebrew slang has been influenced mainly by English, Yiddish, and Arabic. Initially, Yiddish was the most influential language, but today it has been surpassed by Arabic, due to the protracted contact between the two languages in the Israeli domain. 1 Since the 1990s, there has been a noticeable increase in slang of Arabic origin, which is present in impressive proportions in the group of emotional words, greetings, exclamations, and curses (Dana, 2008). 2 The encounter between the Israelis and the Arabs who lived in the country had a profound influence on slang, leading to the adoption of words such as deḥilak, inshallah, ṣaḥtein, mabṣuṭ, aḥla, ahbal, majnun, fadiḥa, kasaḥ, and freḥa. A significant portion of the Hebrew slang vocabulary has its origins in colloquial Arabic (Netzer, 2007;Marai, 2008). 3 It is difficult to find a Hebrew speaker who does not use greetings of Arabic 1 Sapan's study (1963) found borrowings at a level of 40 percent from Yiddish, 39 percent from Arabic, and very small percentages from European languages such as English, Russian, and French. An updated study might yield different results due to the significant changes in Israeli society over recent decades. Rosenthal (2005) claims that 35 percent of the slang vocabulary can be attributed to Arabic, 31 percent to English, and only 21 percent to Yiddish. It would seem that the dwindling of the generation connected to Yiddish has led to a reduction in the use of slang from Yiddish in favor of the contact with the Arab population.
746 origin, despite the fact that expressions of politeness constitute a social value in every civilization, and although every culture has a different definition as to what is considered polite. Hebrew has also been influenced by slang of English origin; in particular, many English words were absorbed during the British Mandate period. Words and phrases such as -fifty-fifty‖ and -tremp‖ (i.e. -tramp,‖ meaning -hitchhike‖) remain from this period. During the 1970s, Hebrew was influenced by words borrowed from English through the field of rock and pop music, while in the 1990s new technology served as the vehicle of penetration (Fischerman, 2004;Koren, 2010Koren, -2011.Another source that has enriched slang vocabulary in Israeli Hebrew ismilitary slang. The military creates ideal opportunities for the emergence of slang, since it constitutes a closed framework of young people who undergo an intensive and challenging experience-one that is shared by most speakers of Modern Hebrew. Some of the words, expressions, acronyms, and verbs created from words that emerged in the military setting have since become part of general Israeli slang-these include leshaptzer(-to improve, touch up‖) and jobnik(a soldier or worker who performs an undemanding and safe function) (Almog, 1993;Eldar, 1994;Granot, 1993;Sapan, 1966). Since the 1980s, there has been a sharp fall in the influence of military slang and a rise in subtle and elusive slang drawn from the language of young people. Another factor that has contributed to slang vocabulary is the technological revolution and the emergence of social networks. Most of the words from this field are taken from English, and this source functions as a type of media -highway‖ (Rosenthal, 2008(Rosenthal, , 2013Marai, 2013).

Characteristics of slang use:-
Studies show that the use of slang is usually spontaneous and is often shaped by the specific situation in which the conversation takes place or by its purpose. Motives such as amusement, entertainment, or adapting the discourse to the addressee increase the use of slang. The following are some key characteristics:  Linguistic and cultural reasons and political or geopolitical changes (Marai, 2015). 4 Slang plays an important role in shaping the humor of different societies and cultures. The use of a slang term often has an amusing effect.  In the context of Jewish settlement in the Land of Israel, slang played a unique function against the background of the use of other languages brought by Jewish immigrants from Arab and European countries. Slang helped bypass the prevailing position at the time that foreign elements oughtnot be included in the Hebrew language (Rosenthal, 2007). Despite this position, words from Arabic, Russian, Yiddish, and English penetrated into Hebrew during different periods, under the influence of extralinguistic factors (Muchnik, 1994;Schwartzwald, 1998). 5  Slang provides words and expressions that are absent in the intermediate and elevated language. In some cases, it even provides speakers with alternatives for words and expressions that exist in the standard language but are not used, for various reasons.  Slang is the main tool used to facilitate discussion of taboo topics such as racism and violence, as illustrated in the slang words zaptaand box (both of which mean -a blow‖) (Rosenthal, 2007;Netzer, 2007). Slang can be regarded as a sociolinguistic mechanism that enables speakers to break norms without threatening social values (Ben Yehuda, 1984). The younger generation is often seen as the main conduit through which slang creeps into spoken Hebrew, though in recent years a tendency to use slang has also become increasingly apparent among media workers, politicians, and other social strata.  Speakers feel a need to create a stronger impact on the listener than is possible using the standard and routine word. This phenomenon is reflected in the replacement of the usual expression with a more forceful or vigorous one. Examples of such pairs include tov (-good‖) and kabir(-wicked‖);barur(-obvious‖) and ashkara(-totally‖); or meluchlach(-dirty‖) and ma'afan(-grotty.‖) Others see this phenomenon as an example of the principle of economy in speech: the natural tendency to alleviate the physical and psychological effort involved in speech encourages the emergence of truncated forms or acronyms (Sapan, 1963). 4 Marai explains that the linguistic reasons are that Hebrew and Arabic are sister Semitic languages, while the cultural reasons are that Arabic served as a mother tongue and traditional language for many members of the Mizrahi Jewish communities. Political changes refer to the nature of the contact with the Arab population in Israel. 5 Muchnik notes that Ben Yehuda showed a tolerant attitude and positive discrimination in favor of the adoption of words of Arabic origin, in contrast to the European languages. She identifies two key periods in terms of Arabic influence: the pre-state period, which was dominated by wars with the Arabs, and the period following independence, which was marked by coexistence between Arabs and Jews who arrived from the Arab countries.

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The absence of words for everyday use; the emergence of closed societies in Israel; rebellion and protest and accepted rules of courtesy and conduct, ideology and language; and a longing for rough and down-to-earth speech are all key reasons for the use of slang (Shalev, 1962).  Ostrovsky (2006) remarks that speech characterized by the use of slang expressions reflects the Israeli ethos. Accordingly, the characteristic violence of this society is manifested in slang, as for example in the use of the word kasakh(-kick ass.‖) Similarly, the use of the term khafif(-half-ass‖) reflects a culture of superficiality, an attempt to impress others, and hedonism, and even implies a sense of dissatisfaction with a given situation.  Sometimes speakers deliberately aim to be incomprehensible to an alien or hostile environment. An example of this is the jargon used by thieves, prisoners, and criminals, and this explains the use of slang among these groups. The use of slang may also be perceived as an act of social identification by speakers from higher social circles with other parts of the people. It is hardly surprising that many speakers view slang as a sub-language that characterized lower-class sections of the populationbut one only needs to watch television to realize that this is a mistaken view.

Arab vocabulary in Israeli slang:-
Slang words of Arabic origin that have penetrated Modern Hebrew are today used by speakers from all sections of society. They have penetrated the language though media such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet. These words are used by speakers from diverse backgrounds and classes and are no longer the exclusive preserve of any particular section of the population. The following list presents the main slang words of Arabic origin used by Jewish speakers, divided according to word classes: 6 D.1. Slang words from Arabic used in Hebrew as nouns: intifada (literally -uprising,‖)  6 The items in the following lists are transliterated according to the usual pronunciation by Jewish speakers of Modern Hebrew (see also section E below). 7 In the figurative sense of the term, referring to mess or disorder. 8 Verbs derived from nouns will be presented separately below. This paragraph lists borrowed verbs.

Non-use of the definite article:-
Slang words used in Hebrew as adjectives do not take the definite article. The word akhlais used as an adjective in Hebrew, for example in phrases such as akhlaokhel(-great food.‖) Regular Hebrew adjectives can take the definite article, but akhladoes not do so. The same applies to akbar, agbar, and other slang words of Arabic origin. These words express quantity or degree and would be expect to serve as functional words, but in fact their quality is 9 The three Arabic consonants ‫,ص‬ ‫,ض‬ and‫ظ‬amalgamated in Hebrew in the consonant ‫.צ‬ Here, however, the -d‖ sound, which is phonetically more similar to the consonant ‫,ض‬ has instead been used.

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adjective. When the adjective appears before the noun, as in akhlaokhel, the definite article is not used, while when it follows the noun, as in Hebrew, the article may be used.

Use of the dominant gender form:-
Slang words used as adjectives usually appear in the dominant gender form, without agreement for the less common gender. For example, words such as asli, baladi, majnun, ta'aban, mastul, mabsut, and others usually appear in the masculine, although it is also possible to use the feminine formsaslit, baladit, majnuna, and so forth.
Creating new words using Hebrew lexical patterns:abstract nouns are derived from adjectives borrowed from Arabic using the standard Hebrew suffix -iyut. For example, dugriyut(-straight-upness,‖ -honesty‖) is formed from dugri, and similar forms include khafifnikiyut, asliyut, arsiyut, baladiyut, and so forth. Similarly, adjectives are derived from nouns by adding the Hebrew suffix -i, creating such words as keyfi, arabushi(-Arab‖ as an adjective,) frekhit, khafifniki, and ahbali. New nouns can be created using the suffix -iya, such as khumusiya(-humus joint‖) or sakhbakiya(from sakhbak, meaning -relaxed and friendly atmosphere.‖) Preference for the singular:-While the original Arab words are used freely in singular or plural, the tendency in Hebrew is to prefer the singular.
Changes in semantic field:-Some slang words show changes in their semantic field and meaning by comparison to the Arabic original:  The word akhlain Arabic means -most beautiful‖ or -sweetest.‖ In Hebrew, it is used to mean -best‖ or -excellent‖ in all instances.  In Arabic, shaḥtameans -line,‖ -small stripe,‖ and also -itch.‖ In Hebrew, a process of lexical reduction has led to the use of shakhtato refer solely to a -toke‖ on a cigarette; today, the word is used mainly in the context of the use of soft drugs.  The Arabic word dawawinis used to refer to a collection of art works, and by extension came to refer to frivolous things. The Hebrew form dawinimrefers to vacuous behavior intended to attract attention.  In Arabic, jama'arefers to any group of peoplefriends, family, and so forth. In Hebrew, the term is used mainly in a delinquent context. The process here is one of lexical reduction and metaphorical adaptation.  Jura in Arabic refers to a pothole in a road, a ditch, or a pool for collecting sewage. In Hebrew, it is often used to refer to a -big mouth‖someone who talks nonsense or is excessively fond of cursing.  In Arabic, the word ṣaḥbaki, from ṣahib(-friend,‖) means a -friend‖ in a positive sense. In Hebrew, sakhbakiusually refers to someone who acts informally when the occasion demands formality. Thus the sense has been inverted from the positive to the negative.  The Arabic freḥacomes from faraḥ, meaning a chick or gosling. The Hebrew frekhahas come to be used to refer to a young woman who behaves in a -common‖ or undignified waya metaphorical extension.

Preservation of the Arabic meaning:-
It emerges that many words of Arabic origin are used in Hebrew slang in an identical sense to the Arabic. These words have penetrated Hebrew without difficulty and are widely used without any significant change in their form or meaning. This pattern is particularly common in the case of expressions, proverbs, explanations, and supplications. The words involved convey diverse connotations and accordingly are used extensively. Examples include ahlanwasahlan, nakhs, various curses, mastul, mabsut, ashkara, yomasalwayom basal, alayhum, shufuniyanas, ala fadi, majnun, inshallah, anaaref, sulkha, and many others.
Changes in word class:-Some of the slang words are used in Hebrew in a different word class to the Arabic original. This is possible since, in many cases, the meaning of the word changes, thereby requiring or facilitating a change in word class. In most cases, these words are still used in the original word class in certain contexts. For example, in a Hebrew sentence such as hudiberelavdugri(-he spoke to him straight-up,‖) dugrifunctions as an adverb. However, in a sentence such as dugri, magi'alahemlehafsid(-straight-up, they deserve to lose,‖) it is used as an exclamation or parenthesis. Similar usages can be seen with such words as rasmiand ashkara. The words sharmuta, kaḥba, and freḥaare nouns 750 in Arabic but in Hebrew are used both as nouns and adjectives. Aḥla, akbar, and ajbarare superlative adjectival forms in Arabic, whereas in Hebrew they are usually used in a simple adjectival context.

Words and expressions used in a fixed form similar to the Arabic:-
The duplicated verbal form shufshuf(-look look‖) is used in Arabic to express surprise, and serves the same function in Hebrew. This category also includes many of the expressions and proverbs, such as: ala fadi, shufuniyanas, illifaatmaat, min ayuni, as well as interjections beginning with the vocative particle ya, such as ya Allah, yarabak.
The forms uskut, tfadal, and tislamare used solely in the second person.
Portmanteau and compound word formation:-These forms are particularly common in the case of exclamations with strong emotional connotations of compassion, mercy, anger, surprise, excitement, and so forth, as well as in curses. In most cases these forms are used in a similar form to the Arabic original, without significant changes in form or content: Pronunciation of consonants contrary to standard Hebrew in order to preserve the original form of the word:-According to standard Hebrew rules, the consonant pairs b/v, p/f, and k/kh are allophones; the voiced consonant in each pair is required at the beginning of a word and in certain other contexts, while elsewhere the unvoiced consonant is used. Despite this, the form fishel(-he screwed up‖) is used rather than *pishel, and lekayef(-to have fun‖) and not *lekhayef), thereby preserving the sound of the original Arabic. Similarly, lehitkhafef(-to do something half-ass‖) is used, rather than *lehikafefas required by standard Hebrew grammar; lekase'akh(-to beat the crap out of‖) and not *lekhase'akh; fananand not *panan; fadikharather than *padikha; frekhaand not *prekha, and so forth. This phenomenon is common in the use of slang in general, and particularly in the case of slang words of foreign origin.
Fixed stress not shifting in declension:-Slang words of Arabic origin maintain their stress even when the word is declined. For example, the plural of ˈfashlais ˈfashlotthe stress remains on the first syllable, despite the fact that the feminine plural suffix -otis always stressed in standard Hebrew. The same principle is reflected in the plural forms ˈdakhkot, mabˈsutim, ˈahbalim, ˈfrekhot, sharˈmutotand many other words. Arabic slang words here follow the pattern seen in slang words of foreign origin in general.
Unusual syllable structure:-Slang words create unusual patterns in stress and syllables. Multisyllabic words ending in a vowel have penultimate stress: 11 in-ti-ˈfa-da, shar-ˈmu-ta, fa-ˈdi-kha, ˈsul-kha, ˈju-ra, ˈba-ssa, and many others. These words maintain the stress of the original Arabic, along with other components of its structure. This helps a speaker who is unable to identify the unusual stress of the word. This pattern leads to some forms that have antepenultimate stress, contrary to the rules of standard Hebrew, such as: mu-ˈsa-ye-ra. Some multisyllabic words have final stress, such as akhulmanˈyuk, whereas in standard Hebrew penultimate stress is more common. Similarly, masculine plural nouns often have penultimate stress, contrary to the norm in Hebrew: daˈwinim, mabˈsutim, ˈahbalim, etc.

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Regular morphology:-Feminine forms ending in -a: sharmuta, frekha, basta, fashla, fadikha, maskhara, nagla. All these words have penultimate stress, as in Arabic, despite the fact that the feminine suffix in Hebrew is usually stressed. Similarly, adjectival forms ending in -ido not have final stress, again contrary to the Hebrew norm: ˈasli, ˈbaladi, ˈsakhbaki.
Multiple root letters:many slang words have a larger number of root letters than is common in Hebrew. Examples include dawinim, sharmuta, and intifada. Although this phenomenon is encountered in Hebrew, it is rare, and usually the product of the secondary production of verbs from nouns.

Derivation of Hebrew verbs from slang words of Arabic origin:-
Many verbs in Hebrew slang were formed from slang words that penetrated Hebrew from Arabic and were later absorbed in the Hebrew verb system. The formation of verbs from nouns and adjectives is more common than the direct borrowing of verbs, which is a separate subject:  The word bassawas used to form the verbal form hitba'essand associated conjugations, meaning -to be bummed off.‖  The noun khartawas used to form the verb khirtet, meaning -to lie‖ or -to hoodwink.‖  From khafifcomes the verb khifef--to do something half-ass.‖  From kasakhcomes the verb lekase'akh --to beat the crap out of.‖  From mastulcomes hitmastel--to get wasted/stoned.‖  The noun mangalwas used to form the verb mingel--to barbeque.‖  From fashlacomes the verb fishel--to screw up.‖

Conclusion:-
This study highlights the absorption of slang words of Arabic origin in all areas of Hebrew speech. However, a clear quantitative distinction can be seen between the different word classes. The borrowing of nouns and adjectives is extremely common. Words denoting both concrete and abstract entities are adapted from Hebrew for use in spoken and written Hebrew in all registers. By contrast, the penetration of Arabic verbs and adverbs into Hebrew slang is extremely limited and examples are few. Most of the verbs used in Hebrew slang were formed by derivation from nouns using the standard Hebrew patterns, though the noun in question is of Arabic origin. This pattern underscores the closed character of the verb system, which does not usually allow changes, whereas the Hebrew noun system is rich and open to change. Numerous expressions used for exclamation, greeting, and requests have also found their way into Hebrew and are popular among speakers. This group shows a high level of borrowing alongside frequent usage. Slang words that have penetrated Hebrew have adopted Hebrew rules and attempt to behave like -natives,‖ although in many cases this is difficult due to the significant differences between the two languages in morphology, phonetics, phonology, and semantics. The diverse characteristics of slang words of Arabic origin show that alongside full integration in the colloquial register, the resilience of a word depends on various factors and does not predict the extent to which the word will be absorbed in the standard language. These factors include the ability of the word to survive on an ongoing basis in the media and a morphological and phonetic structure facilitating the application of Hebrew grammatical words without restrictions, particularly for frequent use in written and official Hebrew (examples include rasmiand sulkha). Many words may be used by numerous speakers in the spoken register only, over an extensive period. Moreover, it is difficult to predict the extent to which a particular word will be absorbed in Hebrew slang. Nevertheless, such absorption clearly depends on the timing of its use in the media; the extent of exposure of speakers; and the diverse connotations for which it is employed. The successful combination of these factors may increase the likelihood that a word will be absorbed.
The scope of this study did not permit a broader investigation of the attitudes of native Jewish speakers toward the use of slang, on the one hand, and toward the status of words in language, on the other. It will be informative to